Data Collection                            

It is the process to geather information about the relevent topic of research which is uring one by researcher.

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions and evaluate outcome.

Data collection can be defined as a process of collecting and measuring information on specific variables in order to provide answers to the research problem which will also determine the type of answers to generate as findings.

Although different fields of study have different ways of collecting data, one fact that still remains is that they share the same purpose of ensuring accurate and objectives data collection, the primary objective of every data collection is to generate evidence-based data that can be tested, varified and generalized.

The type of research will determine the type of data gethering technique to be used because qualitative and quantitative research called for different data and data collection method.

Although, at advanced research, two or more research methods can be used together (Triangulation).

It should be noted that, fair and accurate data collection is critical to enhance the integrity of any kind of research.

Problems with poor Dala Collection                                                    

It is research data is poorly collected or not properly collected as a result of different factors, below are some of the consequences

1. It will not be able to provide answers to the research problems.

2.It may find it difficult to answer research questions.

The research may not be able to stand the test of time as the instrument is not reliable.

It will not be able to measure what is expected to measure.

It will lead to faulty findings.

Data collection tools and techniques                                                   

Tools

Questionnaire

Interview Schedule

Observation Schedule

Scales

Tests

Inventory, checklist, Opinionnaire

Sociogram / Sociometry

Techniques

Questioning : written, oral

Interviewing : Face to face, Telephonic, Electronic / Net,Group, Video.

Observation

Projective Techniques

Panel Methods (Diary, Checklist, logs etc.)

Methods to collect primary data                                                        

1. Interviews

2. Questionnaires

3. Experiment

4. Case study

5. Observation

Method of data collection                                                                     

                                            Method of data collection

A. Secondary Source                                                                                                    

1. Published data                                            

i. Government Source                        ii. General Business Source

2. Un- published data

B. Primary Source

1. Observation                                                                                       

i. Participant                                       ii. Non-participant

2. Interviews 

i. Structured                                        ii. Un- structured

3. Questionnaire

i. Mailed Questionnaire                      ii. Collective Questionnaire

Types of Data Collection Tools                                                             

The various methods of data gathering involve the use of appropriate recording forms. These are called tools or instruments of data collection They Consist of

* Observation Schedule

* Interview Guide

* Interview Schedule

* Mailed Questionnaire

* Rating Scale

* Checklist

* Document Schedule / data sheet

* Schedule for institutions

* Each of the above tools is used for a specific method of data gathering : observation schedule for observation method, interview schedule and interview guide for interviewing, questionnaire for mail survey, and so on.

1. Interview ( French word 'Entre vior' )                                                                            

Interviewing is a process of personal interaction between a researcher and a respondent.

                                                                                                                             – Krishna Kumar (1992)

In simple words we can say that survey interviewing is a face to face interaction with the respondents to get specific information. The questions may be pre decided.

An interview is a conversation between two or more people where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the interview.

It is the most widely used primary data collection methods where in the interviewer asks questions either personally, on through mail on telephone from the respondents to obtain the insights of the problem under study.

Types of Interview

1. Structured interviews / Directive interview

2. Un-structured interview/Non-Directive interview

3. Semi-structured interview

4. In depth interview

5. Focused group interview

6. Telephone interview

2. Delphi Techniques                                                                                                            

Delphi method was developed by : Project RAND- RAND composition.

Full Form : 'Research And Development ' corporation year : 1959

Person Name : Olaf Helmer, Norman Dalkey and Nicholas Rescher.

Delphi word desired from the Greek name Oracle of Delphi.

The Delphi Technique started out or a technique to predict the future. It was developed by the RAND corporation in 1950, as for the us air force.

The RAND corporation is an American think-tank that was founded in 1946 by the US air fence. A few years later, it became an independent non-profit originally, the Delphi Technique was aimed at predicting the impact of technology on warfare.

For this decision making method, a group of experts are asked to anonymously answer a surrey and provide feedback on each other's answers. This process repeats itself. The aim is to come up with concrete solutions.

The Delphi method or Delphi technique also known as Estimate-Talk- Estimate or ETE and judgemental forecasting methods.

It is powerful decision making and problem solving tool.

The Delphi Method was originally designed to collect data from a panel of experts to aid in decision making in government settings. Delphi has been described as a qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approach.

The Delphi technique is part of the research technique that is also known as interactive survey.

Delphi method use : The Delphi method is a process used to arrive at a group opinion or decision by surveying a panel of experts. Experts respond to several rounds of questionnaires, and the responses are aggregated and shared with the group after each round.

3. Projective Techniques                                                                                                      

The projective techniques are the unstructured and an indirect interview method used where the respondents are reluctant to give answers if the objective is disclosed. It is must used psychologists.

An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the issues of concern.

In projective techniques, respondents are asked to interpret the behavior of others.

In interpreting the behavior of others, respondents indirectly project their own motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings into the situation.

Types of Projective Techniques                                                                                           

A. Pictorial Projective Techniques

                        i. Rorschach ink blot test

                       ii. Thematic Apperception test (TAT)

B. Verbal Projective Techniques

                       i. Word-association method

                      ii Sentence Completion

C. Expressive Methods

                     i. Play techniques

                   ii. Drawing and Painting

                  iii. Role-Playing

A. Pictorial Projective Technique

i. Rorschach ink blot Test

The test was one of the first projective tests. Developed by a swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in 1921.

The test consists of 10 different cards that depict an ambiguous inkblot.

You're shown one card at a time and asked to describe what you see in the image.

The responses are recorded verbatim by the tester. Gestures, the tone of voice and other reactions are also noted.

ii. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

In the TAT test, you're asked to look at a series of ambiguous scenes and them to tell a story describing the scene, including what is happening, how the characters are feeling, and how the story will end.

The examiner then scores the test based on the needs, motivation, and anxieties of the main character, as well as how the story eventually turns out.

Here the respondent is presented with multiple pictures and then is asked to describe what he think the pictures represent

B. Verbal Projective Technique

i. Word Association Method

Individual is given a clue on hint and asked to respond to the first thing that comes to mind.

The interviewer records the responses which reveal the inner feeling of the respondents.

The frequency with which any word is given a response and the amount of time that elapses before the response is given are important for the researcher. For eg. Out of 50 respondents 20 people associate the word "fair" with "Complexion".

Here the researcher provides a set of words to the respondent and then ask them to tell what comes to their mind when they hear a particular word.

ii. Sentence completion

This the respondents are asked to complete an incomplete sentence on story.

The completion will reflect their attitude and state of mind.

For eg. Today I am Feeling____________because______________.

The researcher provides the incomplete sentences to the respondents and ask them to complete it. This is done to check the ideas of the respondents.

C. Expressive Method

i. Play Techniques

ii. Drawing and Painting

iii. Role Playing

Under this method, the respondents are given the imaginary situations and are asked to enact in a way they would have if the situation is real.

4. Observation                                                                                                                      

Observation has been defined as "the selection, provocation, recording and encoding that set of behaviours and setting concerning an organism 'in situ' which is consistent with empirical aims". Literally, observation is a process of 'seeing' the things or events with naked eye with or without the use of any device to unravel the complexity of any phenomena to satisfy the demands of an empirical question.

Observation is way of gathering data by watching behaviour, events, or noting physical characteristic in their natural settings.

Types of observation

i. Structured observation

ii. Un-structured observation

iii. Participant observation

iv. Non-Participant observation

v. Disguised observation

vi. Mechanical observation

i. Structure observation / controlled observation

It this type of careful information is recorded in a standardized way.

It is a planned observation of a phenomen and to follow certain patterns rules and designs for the purpose what, how and when to observe.

Quantitative data collected

ii. Un-structured observation / Uncontrolled observation

Un-structured observation is opposite to structured.

This is not systematic and un-planned observation.

A researcher do not set a plan in advance but he get the informations freely.

There is no rules to follow by the researcher.

iii. Participant observation

Observer participates actively, for an extended period of time.

May require observer to live or work in that area.

Assumes that observer will become accepted member of the group or community.

Historically field research has been associated most strongly with participant observation.

iv. Non-Participant observation

The Non-Participant observation has a lock of participation of the observer in his group activities.

He either watch the phenomena from a distance or participate in the group but never in its activities.

He only sit in the group but do not interest in the process.

V. Disguised observation

In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware that they are being observed. Disguise may be accomplished by using one way mirrors, hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices. Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.

VI. Mechanical observation

Nielsen's Audimeter and peoplemeter are used for tracking TV set watching.

Voice pitch meters are used, to measure emotional reactionts.

Psychogalvanometers are used to measure galvanic skin response which in turn indicates respondents interest level and attitude towards the stimuli.

Response latency is the time respondent takes to answer a question and is used to measure relative preference for various alternatives.

It may be easier to record behaviour of subjects but measuring precise level of reactions is questionable some of the devices are expensive to use. Creation of an artificial environment is another limitation.

VII. Direct observation

This means observation of an event personally by the observer when it takes place. This method is flexible and allows the observer to see and record subtle aspects of events and behaviour as they occur. He is also free to shift places, change the focus of the observation.

Ex. - observer in physically to monitor.

VIII. Indirect observation.

This does not involve the physical presence of the observer and the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic devices.

Ex.- Recording customer and employee movements by special motion picture camera mounted in a department of large store.

5. Questionnaire                                                                                                                   

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone, computer or post. A questionnaire may or may not be delivered in the form of a survey, but a survey always consists of a questionnaire.

Questionnaire is the most evident method of data collection, which is comprised of a set of questions related to the research problem. This method is very convenient is case the data are to be collected from the diverse population.

It mainly includes the printed set of questions, either open-ened or closed ended, which the respondents are required to answer to the basis of their knowledge and experience with the issue concerned.

A list of logically arrange questions related to the object of the study is made. The space between the question is provided for answer. A list of questions paper in such a way is called questionnaire.

Characteristics of Questionnaire

i. Every questionnaire must have an appropriate title.

ii. No. of questions should be minimum as possible.

iii. The no. of questions in the questionnaire should be consistent with the purpose of the inquiry.

iv. Questions should be simple, short and understandable.

v. The arrangements of the questions should be logical.

vi. Question of sensitive nature or personal life should be avoided.

vii. Answer to the questions should be free from any calculations.

viii. The questions having answer yes / no multiple choice should be asked.

Types of Questionnaire

                                                        Questionnaires

A. Open ended or Unstructured

B. Closed ended or Structured

                                   i. Simple dichotomy                                                              i. Multiple choice

                                                                                                                                 a. Determinant

                                                                                                                                 b. Check List

A. Open-ended /Unstructured Questionnaire

In which the respondent answers in his own words.

Advantages

1. Freedom and spontaneity of the answers.

2. Opportunity to probe.

3. Usefull for testing hypothesis about ideas.

Disadvantages

1. Time-consuming.

2. Coding : very costly and slow to process.

3. Demand more effort from the respondents.

B. Closed ended or Structured Questionnaire

Question in which respondent selects one or more options from pre-determined set of responses.

Advantages

i. No extended writing.

ii. Easy to process.

iii. Useful for testing specific hypothesis.

Disadvantage

i. Loss of spontaneous response.

ii. Bias in answer categories.

iii. May irritate respondents.

i. Simple dichotomy

Closed ended question with only two response alternatives.

Ex. - How do you rate the services of your library?

Answer. Good____ Bad_____

ii. Multiple Choice

Closed ended question with more than two response alternatives.

Ex. How much satisfaction do you get from 

your job?

Answer

A. A great deal. B. Quite a bit

C. A little. D. not at all

a. Determinant choice

Multiple choice question in which respondent must select only one of the response alternatives.

Ex. - How much satisfaction do you get from your library job?

Answer

A. A great deal.                           B. Fairly well

C. Very little.                             D. Not at all

b. Checklist question

Multiple choice question in which respondent can select more than one of the response alternatives.

Ex. - Please indicate the purpose of visit in the library? (you may tick (✓) a many responses as are applicable)

a. To consult text book                   b. To read Comic Book

c. To consult journals.                   d. To access internet

e To read paper. f. To listen music

Case Study Method                                                                                                              

Meaning : - The case study method is a very popular from of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit person, a family an institution, a cultural group or even the entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth.

The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations.

Thus, case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration.

The object of the case study method is to locate the factors that account for the behaviour patters of the given unit as an integrated totality.

According to H. odum, the case study method is a technique by which individual factor whether it be an institution or just an episode in the life of an individual or a group is analysed in its relationship to any other in the group.

Thus, a fairly exhaustive study of a person (as to what he does and has done, what he thinks he does and had done and what he expects to do and says he ought to do) or group is called a life or case history.

Burgess has used the words the social microscope for the case study method.

Case study method is a form of qualitative analysis where in careful and complete observation of an individual or a situation or an institution is done, efforts are made to study each and every aspect of the concerning unit in minute details and then from case data generalisations and inferences are drown

example - An investigation into the reasons of the global financial and economic crisis of 2008-2010

Descriptive case studies aim to analyze the sequence of interpersonal events after a certain amount of time has passed.

Case study characteristic

i. Under this method the researcher can take one single social unit on more of such units for his study purpose; he may even take a situation to study the same comprehensively.

ii. Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e. it is studied in minute details. Generally, the study extends over a long period of time to ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough information for drawing correct inferencers.

iii. Through this method are try to understand the complex of factors that are operative within a social unit as integrated

iv. Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative and not quantative. Mere quantitative information is not collected. Every possible effort is made to collect information concerning all aspects of life. As such, case study deepens our perception and gives us a clear insight into life.

v. Case study method results infruitful hypothesis along with the data which may be helpful in testing them, and thus it enables the generalised knowledge to get richer and richer.

Evolution and scope

The case study method is a widely used systematic field research technique in sociology there day's.

Similarly, anthropologist, historians, novelists and dramatists have used this method concerning problems pertaining to their areas of interests. Even management experts use case study methods for getting clues to several management problems.

Assumptions

The case study method is based on several assumptions. The important assumptions may be listed as follows.

i. The assumption of uniformity in the basic human nature in spite of the fact that human behaviour may very according to situation.

ii. The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned.

iii. The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.

Case studies in business research can be divided into three categories :

1. Explanatory

2. Descriptive

3. Exploratory

1. Explanatory

Explanatory case studies aim to answer 'how' or 'why' questions with little control on be half of researcher over occurrence of events. This type of case studies focus on phenomena within the contexts of real-life situations. 

Example : An investigation into the reasons of the global financial and economic crisis of 2008-2010.

2. Descriptive

Descriptive case studies aim to analyze the sequence of interpersonal events after a certain amount of time has passed. Studies in business research belonging to this category usually describe culture on subculture, and they attempt to discover the key phenomena,

example - Impact of increasing levels of multiculturalism on marketing practices : A case study of McDonald's Indonesia.

3. Explanatory

Exploratory case study aim to find answers to the question of "what" or "who". Exploratory case study data collection method such as interviews, questionnaires, experiments etc.

Example - A study into differences of leadership practices between private and public sector organizations in At lan ta, USA.

Major phases involved : Major phases involved in case study are as follows -

i. Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon to be investigated or the unit of attention.

ii. Collection of data, examination and history of the given phenomenon.

iii. Diagnosis and identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial or developmental treatment

iv Application of remedial measures i.e. - treatment and therapy (This phase is often characterised as case work)

v. Follow-up programme to determine effectiveness of the treatment applied.

 Types of data in statistics

1. Quantitative Data

i. Discrete Data

Discrete data is a count that involves only integers. The discrete values cannot be subdivided into parts. For example, the number of children in a class in discrete data. You can't count 1.5 kinds.

Example : 1,2,3,4,5,6, etc.

ii. Continuous Data

Continuous data could be meaningfully divided into finer levels. It can be measured on a scale or continum and can have any numeric value. For example, you can measure your height at very precise scales - meters, centimer, millimeters etc.

Example : 1.3, 1.8, 2.3 etc.

2. Qualitative Data

a. Nominal Dala

Nominal data is used just for lebeling variables, without any type of quantitative value. The Nominal comes from the latin word 'nomen' which means "name".

The nominal data just name a thing without appling it to an order. Actually, the nominal data could just be called labels.

examples -

Gender (women, Men)

Hair Colour (Blonde, Brown, Red etc.)

Marital status (Married, single,)

Enthnicity (Hispanic, Asian)

b. Ordinal Data

Ordinal data is data which is placed into some kind of order by their position on a scale.

Ordinal data may indicate superiority. However, you cannot do arithmetic with ordinal numbers because they only show sequence.

examples -

The first, second and third person in a competition.

Letter grades A, B, C and etc.

when a company asks a customer to rate the

sales experience on a scale of 1- 10

Economic status : Low, Medium, High

Internal Data                                                                                                                        

Internal Data is private data that your organization owns, controls or collects. The sales data or financial data of your organization are examples of internal data. Notice that I say data you create, own or control?

There's a reason why. Internal data can either be primary or secondary.

When you create data by surveying people within your organization and use these insights to show factors that influence workplace productivity that data is internal and primary.

On the other hand, when you use data from google analytics to show that most of your website visitors search for alternative data production, such data is internal and secondary.

External data                                                                                                                        

External data is data collected from sources outside your organization. The data could be :

1. Publicly available data such as census, electoral statistics. tax records and internet searches.

2. Private data from third parties such as Amazon, Facebook, Google, Walmart and credit reporting agencies like experian.

When you conduct interviews with data science leaders world wide you're collecting primary data, but from an external source. So, such data is external and primary.

When you use the interviews conducted by a digital publication like stock overflow. You're using data that's external and secondary.

Notes : 

Question : 

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